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This chapter focuses on constructivism relates it to international relations (IR). The core argument of the constructivist perspective revolves around the idea that the world people find themselves in is socially constructed rather than simply given. Moreover, constructivism underscores the ideational aspects of international politics. The chapter compares this to the predominantly materialist explanations offered by mainstream IR theory. The chapter examines the application of constructivism to the analysis of international politics. It then highlights the importance of identity and norms, which are emphasized within constructivism and international politics, before considering the nuclear weapons debate as related to the perspective of constructivism.

This chapter examines liberal theories of international politics, focusing on a series of questions that are relevant for understanding not only strands of liberal theorizing but also how theorizing can inform political practices. The chapter considers how liberalism emerged and four central processes of interest to liberalism: globalization, democratization, institutionalization, and regional integration. The chapter also considers various forms of liberal theorizing on war and peace, democracy, norms, and interdependence. It examines a case study of the European Union as an embodiment of key liberal principles.

This chapter assesses why international legal obligations are (or are not) complied with, and how they are (or are not) enforced. It begins by drawing a distinction between laws and norms. The chapter then examines the main explanations for international law compliance put forward by both international law and international relations scholars. These may be broadly grouped into two categories: instrumentalist explanations and normative explanations. The chapter also discusses the concept of state responsibility—that is, the body of rules governing when and how states may be held liable for violations of international law. International law-enforcement is indelibly shaped by the condition of international anarchy. According to the concept of self-help, an injured state may, under certain circumstances, unilaterally take countermeasures against the guilty party. Such measures may include sanctions, though these may also be ordered by the UN Security Council as a collective security measure. The international legal system also increasingly makes use of judicial procedures that approximate those found within states. In this connection, the chapter considers the role of courts and tribunals in adjudicating disputes and promoting compliance with international law.

The European Union (EU) cannot be understood without reference to its institutions. But scholars differ on the questions of what precisely EU institutions are, what they do, and why they matter. This chapter defines EU institutions as decision-making bodies. It refers to the notion of EU institutional politics as the sphere of informal and formal rules, norms, procedures, and practices that shape such decision-making. The chapter explores how different theoretical traditions—international relations, integration theory, new institutionalism, the separation of powers, governance, public policy and administration approaches, and critical perspectives—think about EU institutions. Drawing on these traditions, this chapter encourages readers to think about EU institutions along five dimensions: intergovernmental versus supranational, international versus transnational, separated versus fused power, leaders versus followers, and contested versus legitimate. Seeing how the Union’s decision-making bodies move within and between these dimensions offers a deeper understanding of why EU institutions matter.